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MYCOTOXIN ORGANISIMS:
Some Common Mycotoxins
and the Organisms that Produce Them Acetoxyscirpenediol: Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F. culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F. nivale Acetyldeoxynivalenol: Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F. culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F. nivale Acetylneosolaniol: Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum F. culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F. nivale Acetyl T-2 toxin: Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F. culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F. nivale Aflatoxin: Aspergillus flavus, A.parasiticus Aflatrem: Aspergillus flavus Altenuic acid: Alternaria alternata Alternariol: Alternaria alternata Austdiol: Aspergillus ustus Austamide: Aspergillus ustus Austocystin: Aspergillus ustus Avenacein: Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F. culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseumand F. nivale Beauvericin +2: Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum,F. culmorum, F. avenaceum, F.roseum, and F. nivale Bentenolide: Monographella nivalis Brevianamide: Aspergillus ustus Butenolide: Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F. culmorum, F. avenaceum, F.roseum, and F. nivale Calonectrin: Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporumF. culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseum, and F. nivale Chaetoglobosin: Chaetomium globosum Citrinin: Aspergillus carneus, A. terreus, Penicillium citrinum, P. hirsutum, P. verrucosum Citreoviridin: Aspergillus terreus, Penicillium citreoviride Cochliodinol: Chaetomium cochliodes Crotocin: Acremonium crotocinigenum Cytochalasin E: Aspergillus clavatus Cyclopiazonic acid: Aspergillus versicolor Deacetylcalonectrin: Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F. culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseum and F. nivale Deoxynivalenol diacetate: Fusarium moniliforme, and F. nivale Deoxynivalenol monoacetate: Fusarium moniliforme, F. culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseum and F. nivale Diacetoxyscirpenol: Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti Destruxin B: Aspergillus ochraceus Enniatins: Fusarium moniliforme, F. avenaceum, F. roseum,F. solani and F. nivale Fructigenin+1: Fusarium moniliforme, F. culmorum, F. avenaceum and F. roseum Fumagilin: Aspergillus fumigatus Fumonisin B1: Fusarium moniliforme, F. culmorum, F. avenaceum and F. nivale Fusaric acid: Fusarium moniliforme Fusarin: Fusarium moniliforme Gliotoxin: Alternaria, Aspergillus fumigatus, Penicillium HT-2 toxin: usarium moniliforme, F. culmorum, >F. avenaceum and F. nivale Ipomeanine: Fusarium moniliforme, F. culmorum, F. avenaceum and F. nivale Islanditoxin: Penicillium islandicum Lateritin: Fusarium moniliforme, F. culmorum, F. avenaceum and F. nivale Lycomarasmin: Fusarium moniliforme Malformin: Aspergillus niger Maltoryzine: Aspergillus spp. Moniliformin: Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F. culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. ,roseum, and F. nivale Monoacetoxyscirpenol: Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum,F. culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseum and F. nivale Neosolaniol: Fusarium moniliforme, F. solani, F. culmorum, F. avenaceum and F. roseum Nivalenol: Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F. culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseum and F. nivale NT-1 toxin: Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F. culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. roseum and F. nivale NT-2 toxin: Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F. culmorum, F., F. solani, avenaceum, F. roseum and F. nivale Ochratoxin: Aspergillus ochraceus, Penicillium viridictum Oxalic acid: Aspergillus niger Patulin: Aspergillus clavatus, Penicillium expansum, Botrytis, P. roquefortii, P. claviforme, P. griseofulvum Penicillic acid: Aspergillus ochraceus Penitrem: Penicillium crustosum Roridin E: Myrothecium roridum, M. verrucaria, Dendrodochium spp., Cylindrocarpon spp., Stachybotrys spp. Rubratoxin: Penicillium rubrum Rubroskyrin: Penicillium spp. Rubrosulphin: Penicillium viridicatum Rugulosin: Penicillium brunneum, P. kloeckeri, P. rugulosum Sambucynin+1: Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F. culmorum, F. solani, F. avenaceum, F. roseum and F. nivale Satratoxins F,G,H: Stachybotrys chartarum, Trichoderma viridi Scirpentriol: Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F. culmorum, F. solani, F. avenaceum, F. roseum and F. nivale Slaframine: Rhizoctonia leguminicola Sterigmatocystin: Aspergillus flavus, A. nidulans, A. versicolor, Penicillium rugulosum T-1 toxin: Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. culmorum, F. solani, F. avenaceum, F.roseum and F. nivale T-2 toxin: Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. culmorum, F. solani, F. avenaceum, F.roseum and F. nivale Triacetoxyscirpendiol: Fusarium moniliforme, F. equiseti, F. avenaceum, F. roseum and F. nivale Trichodermin: Trichoderma viride Trichothecin: Trichothecium roseum Trichoverrins: Stachybotrys chartarum Tryptoquivalene: Aspergillus clavatus Verrucarin: Myrothecium verrucaria, Dendrodochium spp., Stachybotrys chartarum Verruculogen: Aspergillus fumigatus, Stachybotrys chartarum Viopurpurin: Trichophyton spp., Penicillium viridicatum Viomellein: Aspergillus spp., Penicillium aurantiogriseum, P. crustosum, P. viridicatum Viriditoxin: Aspergillus fumigatus Xanthocillin: Eurotium chevalieri Yavanicin: Fusarium culmorum, F. graminearum, F. oxysporum, F. roseum, F. moniliforme, F. avenaceum, F. equiseti and F. nivale Zearalenone: Fusarium culmorum, F. graminearum, F. oxysporum, F. roseum, F. moniliforme, F. avenaceum, F.equiseti and F. nivale Fungi are ubiquitous to the environment and primarily saprophytic, using nonliving organic material as a nutrient source for growth and reproduction. Many of these saprophytes can colonize organic water-damaged building materials. During the digestion process fungi secrete enzymes into the nutrient source to break down complex compounds into simpler compounds, which are taken up by the fungi and digested. The digested nutrients are classified into two categories, primary and secondary metabolites. The primary metabolites consist of cellulose and other compounds that are used for energy to grow and reproduce. The secondary metabolites, called mycotoxins, are produced to give fungi a competitive edge against other microorganisms, including other fungi. There are over 200 recognized mycotoxins, however, the study of mycotoxins and their health effects on humans is in its infancy and many more are waiting to be discovered. Many mycotoxins are harmful to humans and animals when inhaled, ingested or brought into contact with human skin. Mycotoxins can cause a variety of short term as well as long-term health effects, ranging from immediate toxic response to potential long-term carcinogenic and teratogenic effects. Symptoms due to exposure to mycotoxins include dermatitis, cold and flu symptoms, sore throat, headache, fatigue, diarrhea, and impaired or altered immune function, which may lead to opportunistic infection. Historically, mycotoxins have been a persistent problem to farmers and the animal husbandry industry in Eastern Europe and developing countries. Mycotoxins are a known agent in biological warfare as a moderate illness compared to the other biologicals. Recently, however, research has implicated many toxin-producing fungi, such as Stachybotrys, Penicillium, Aspergillus and Fusarium species, to indoor air quality problems and building related illnesses. Inhalation of mycotoxin producing fungi in contaminated buildings is the most significant exposure, however, dermal contact from handling contaminated materials and the chance of ingesting toxin containing spores through eating, drinking and smoking is likely to increase exposure in a contaminated environment. Recent advances in technology have given laboratories the ability to test for specific mycotoxins without employing cost-prohibitive gas chromatography or high performance liquid chromatography techniques. Currently, surface, bulk, food and feeds, and air samples can be analyzed relatively inexpensively for the following mycotoxins: Aflatoxin: One of the most potent carcinogens known to man and has been linked to a wide variety of human health problems. The FDA has established maximum allowable levels of total aflatoxin in food commodities at 20 parts per billion. The maximum level for milk products is even lower at 0.5 parts per billion. Primarily Aspergillus species fungi produce aflatoxin. Ochratoxin:Primarily produced by species of Penicillium and Aspergillus. Ochratoxin is damaging to the kidneys and liver and is also a suspected carcinogen. There is also evidence that it impairs the immune system.T-2 ToxinA tricothecene produced by species of Fusarium and is one of the more deadly toxins. If ingested in sufficient quantity, T-2 toxin can severely damage the entire digestive tract and cause rapid death due to internal hemorrhage. T-2 has been implicated in the human diseases alimentary toxic aleukia and pulmonary hemosiderosis. Damage caused by T-2 toxin is often permanent.Fumonisinis a toxin associated with species of Fusarium. Fumonisin is commonly found in corn and corn-based products, with recent outbreaks of veterinary mycotoxicosis occurring in Arizona, Indiana, Kentucky, North Carolina, South Carolina, Texas and Virginia. The animals most affected were horses and swine, resulting in dozens of deaths. Fumonisin toxin causes "crazy horse disease", or leukoencephalomalcia, a liquefaction of the brain. Symptoms include blindness, head butting and pressing, constant circling and ataxia, followed by death. Chronic low-level exposure in humans has been linked to esophageal cancer. The American Association of Veterinary Laboratory Diagnosticians (AAVLD) advisory levels for fumonisin in horse feed is 5 PPM.Vomitoxin,chemically known as Deoxynivalenol, a tricothecene mycotoxin, is produced by several species of Fusarium. Vomitoxin has been associated with outbreaks of acute gastrointestinal illness in humans. The FDA advisory level for vomitoxin for human consumption is 1ppm.ZearalenoneA mycotoxin produced by Fusarium molds. Zearalenone toxin is similar in chemical structure to the female sex hormone estrogen and targets the reproductive organs. Other mycotoxins of clinical significance are as follows:CitrininA nephrotoxin produced by Penicillium and Aspergillus species. Renal damage, vasodilatation, and bronchial constriction are some of the health effects associated with this toxin.AlternariolA cytotoxic compound derived from Alternaria alternataSatratoxin HA macrocyclic tricothecene produced by Stachybotrys chartarum, Trichoderma viridi and other fungi. High doses or chronic low doses are lethal. This toxin is abortogenic in animals and is believed to alter immune system function and makes affected individuals more susceptible to opportunistic infection.GliotoxinAn immunosuppressive toxin produced by species of Alternaria, Penicillium and Aspergillus.PatulinA mycotoxin produced by Penicillium, Aspergillus and a number of other genera of fungi. It is believed to cause hemorrhaging in the brain and lungs and is usually associated with apple and grape spoilage.Sterigmatocystinis a nephrotoxin and a hepatotoxin produced by Aspergillus versicolor. This toxin is also considered to be carcinogenic. Other mycotoxins include - Penicillic acid, roquefortine, cyclopiazonic acid, verrucosidin, rubratoxins A and B, PR toxin, luteoskyrin, cychlochlorotine, rugulosin, erythroskyrine, secalonic acid D, viridicatumtoxin, kojic acid, xanthomegnin, viomellein, chaetoglobosin C, echinulin, flavoglaucin, versicolorin A, austamide, maltoyzine, aspergillic acid, paspaline, aflatrem, fumagillin nigragillin chlamydosporol, isotrichodermin and many more. As discussed there are many mycotoxins that can cause adverse health effects and even death in humans. The synergistic effect of exposure to multiple mycotoxins simultaneously is very poorly understood. Even more poorly understood are the by-products of mycotoxin degradation, particularly under the influence of strong oxidizing agents such as sodium hypochlorite and/or ozone, agents frequently used or misused by remediation personnel in the industry. More research is required in this field to better understand the relationship of fungal contamination, mycotoxin production on building substrates and building related disease.Endotoxinis the name given to a group of heat stabile lipopolysaccharide molecules present in the cell walls of gram-negative bacteria that have a certain characteristic toxic effect. The lipid portion of each molecule is responsible for its toxicity and can vary between bacterial species and even from cell to cell. When inhaled, endotoxin creates an inflammatory response in humans that may result in fever, malaise, alterations in white blood cell counts, headache, respiratory distress and even death. It is common to the environment due to the ubiquitous nature of Gram-negative bacteria. Exposure to elevated levels of endotoxin primarily occurs through exposure to aerosols from specific reservoirs such as cotton mills, wastewater treatment facilities, air washers, humidifiers and any other occupational settings where Gram-negative bacteria can flourish.Mycotoxins
In addition to their roles as irritants and allergens, many fungi produce toxic chemical constituents (Kendrick, 1992; Miller, 1992; Wyllie and Morehouse, 1977). Samson and co-workers (1996) defined mycotoxins as "fungal secondary metabolites that in small concentrations are toxic to vertebrates and other animals when introduced via anatural route". These compounds are non-volatile and may be sequestered in spores and vegetative mycelium or secreted into the growth substrate. The mechanism of toxicity of many mycotoxins involves interference with various aspects of cell metabolism, producing neurotoxic, carcinogenic or teratogenic effects (Rylander, 1999). Other toxic fungal metabolites such as the cyclosporins exert potent and specific toxicity on the cellular immune system (Hawksworth et al., 1995); however, most mycotoxins are known to possess immunosuppressant properties that vary according to the compound (Flannigan and Miller, 1994). Indeed, the toxicity of certain fungal metabolites such as aflatoxin, ranks them among the most potently toxic, immunosuppressive and carcinogenic substances known (ibid.). There is unambiguous evidence that ingestion exposure as well as exposures by the inhalation pathway have been correlated with outbreaks of human and animal mycotoxicoses (Abdel-Hafez and Shoreit, 1985; Burg et al., 1982; Croft et al., 1986; Hintikka, 1978; Jarvis, 1986; Norbäck et al., 1990; Sorenson et al., 1987; Schiefer, 1986). Several common mycotoxigenic indoor fungi and their respective toxins are listed. Volatile Fungal Metabolites
During exponential growth, many fungi release low molecular weight, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as products of secondary metabolism. These compounds comprise a great diversity of chemical structure, including ketones, aldehydes and alcohols as well as moderately to highly modified aromatics and aliphatics. Cultural studies of some common household moulds suggests that the composition of VOCs remains qualitatively stable over a range of growth media and conditions (Sunesson et al., 1995). Furthermore, the presence of certain marker compounds common to multiple species, such as 3-methylfuran, may be monitored as a proxy for the presence of a fungal amplifier (Sunesson et al., 1995). This method has been suggested as a means of monitoring fungal contamination in grain storage facilities (Börjesson et al., 1989; 1990; 1992; 1993). Limited evidence suggests that exposure to low concentrations of VOCs may induce respiratory irritation independent of exposure to allergenic particulate (Koren et al., 1992). Volatile organic compounds may also arise through indirect metabolic effects. A well-known example of this is the fungal degradation of urea formaldehyde foam insulation. Fungal colonization of this material results in the cleavage of urea from the polymer, presumably to serve as a carbon or nitrogen source for primary metabolism. During this process formaldehyde is evolved as a derivative, contributing to a decline in IAQ (Bissett, 1987). The present study was conceived with two primary objectives. First, this investigation shall characterize the fungal biodiversity of house dust. This work shall investigate correlations between dustborne fungal species, and examine the ecological similar of positively associated taxa based on the hypothesis that positively associated dustborne fungi are likely to share habitat characteristics. From this, a second hypothesis follows that mechanisms that permit the entry or concentration a given species will tend to facilitate the entry of other positively correlated taxa. A second objective of this research if to assess the extent of genotypic variability in two dustborne Penicillia, P. brevicompactum and P. chrysogenum. Mycotoxins of significance produced by indoor fungi. Mycotoxin Primary health effect Fungal producers: Aflatoxins Carcinogens, hepatotoxins Aspergillus flavus, As. parasiticus Citrinin Nephrotoxin Penicillium citrinum, Pe. verrucosum Cyclosporin Immunosuppressant Tolypocladium inflatum Fumonisins Carcinogens, neurotoxins Fusarium moniliforme F. proliferatum Ochratoxin A Carcinogen As. Ochraceus, Pe. verrucosum Patulin Protein synthesis inhibitor, As. Terreus nephrotoxin Paecilomyces variotii Pe. expansum Pe. griseofulvum Pe. roquefortii Sterigmatocystin Carcinogen, hepatotoxin As. nidulans | |